peacekeeping missions, and covert actions (1977–1999)
Middle East operations, peacekeeping missions, and covert actions (1977–1999)[edit]
The political instability increased in the country when the conservative alliance refused to accept the voting turnout in favor of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) after the general elections held in 1977.:25–26[105] The army, under Gen. Zia-ul-Haq–the army chief, began planning the military takeover of the federal government under Prime Minister Zulfikar Bhutto, eventually leading the coup d'état that suspended the writ of the Constitution amid responding to the call from one of the opposition leader of threatening to call for another civil war.:27[105] The military interference in civic matters grew further when the martial law was extended for an infinite period despite maintaining that the elections to be held in 90-days prior.:30–31[105] At the request from the Saudi monarchy, the Zia administration deployed the company of the special forces to end seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca from Islamists.:265–280[116]
The army under President Zia weakened due to the army officers were needed in running the affairs of civic government and the controversial military courts that held trials of the communists, dissidents, and the oppositions of Zia's administration.:31–32[105] In 1984–85, Pakistan lost the control of her northern glaciers due to the successful expedition and penetration by the Indian Army, and army had to engage in years long difficult battles with Indian Army to regain their areas from the Indian Army.:45[105] Concerns over the military officers and army personnel needed to counter the further advances by the Indian Army in Northern fronts in 1984, the martial law was lifted following the referendum that approved Zia's presidency and provided a way of holding the general elections in 1985.:45[105] The military control the under army administration had successfully stabilized the law and order in Balochistan despite the massive illegal immigration from Afghanistan, and issued the general amnesties to separatists and rebels.[117] To address the Afghan containment and security, the army established the XII Corps in 1985 that is permanently headquartered in Quetta, that is designed to provide defence against the infiltration by the Afghan National Army from Afghanistan.[118]
In 1985, the United States approved the military aid package, worth $4.02 billion, to Pakistan when the mujaheddin fighting with the Soviet Union in Afghanistan increased and intensified, with Soviet Army began violating and attacking the insurgents in the tribal areas in Pakistan.:45–46[105] In 1986, the tensions with India increased when the Indian Army's standing troops mobilized in combat position in Pakistan's southern frontier with India failing to give notification of exercise to Pakistan prior.:46[105] In 1987–88, the XXX Corps, headquartered in North of Punjab, and the XXXI Corps, headquartered in South of Punjab, was raised and established to provide defence against the Indian army's mass infiltration.[88]
After the aviation accident that resulted in passing of President Zia in 1988, the army organized the massive military exercise with the Pakistan Air Force to evaluate the technological assessment of the weapon systems and operational readiness.:57[105][120] In the 1980s, Pakistan Army remained engage in the affairs of Middle East, first being deployed in Saudi Arabia during the Iran–Iraq War in 1980–1988, and later overseeing operational support measures and combat actions during the Gulf War in 1990–91.[6]
The period from 1991–98 saw the army engaged in professionalism and proved its fighting skills in the Somalian theater (1991–94), Bosnian-Serb War (on Bosnian side from 1994–98[121]), and the other theaters of the Yugoslav Wars, as part of the United Nation's deployment.:69–73[122][123] In 1998, the army's Corps of Engineers played a crucial role in providing the military administration of preparing the atomic weapon-testing in Balochistan when the air force's bombers flown and airlifted the atomic devices.[124] The controversial relief of Gen. Jehangir Karamat by the Sharif administration reportedly disturbed the balance of the civil-military relations with the junior most Lt-Gen. Pervez Musharraf replacing it as chairman joint chiefs and the army chief in 1999.[125]
In May 1999, the army's northern light infantry, the paramilitary unit at that time, slipped into Kargil that resulted in heavy border fighting with the Indian Army, inflicted with heavy casualties on both sides.[126] The ill-devised plan without meaningful consideration of the outcomes of the border war with India, the army under Chairman joint chiefs Gen. Pervez Musharraf (also army chief at that time) failed to its combat performance and suffered with similar outcomes as the previous plan in 1965, with the American military observers in the Pakistan military famously commenting to news channels in Pakistan: Kargil was yet another example of Pakistan's (lack of) grand strategy, repeating the follies of the previous wars with India.":200[127][128][129]
After its commendable performance, the President of Pakistan commissioned the Northern Light Infantry as a regular regiment in the army and its personnel eventually becoming officers and enlisted personnel in the army in 1999.[130]
21st Century: War performances[edit]
Homegrown religious insurgency and War on terror (2001 – present)[edit]
In October 1999, the army engaged in another military takeover of the federal government from the Sharif administration when the Army GHQ refused to accept the relief of commission of Gen. Pervez Musharraf over his failure in succeeding the control of Kargil sector from India.:142[131] This controversial takeover of the federal government was subjected to a lengthy and an expensive lawsuit fought between the lawyers of the department of army and the former Sharif administration at the Supreme Court, with the landmark verdict rendered in 2009 ultimately sided and favored the Sharif administration's arguments as the Justices of the Supreme Court accepted the fact that the army's takeover was in fact a direct violation of the constitution and breach of its given constitutional mandate.:119–120:112–115[132][133]
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Responding to the terror attacks in New York in the United States, the army joined the combat actions in Afghanistan with the United States and simultaneously engage in military standoff with Indian Army in 2001–02. In 2004–06, the military observers from the army were deployed to guide the Sri Lankan army to end the civil war with the Tamil fighters.[134]
To overcome the governance crises in 2004–07, the Musharraf administration appointed several army officers in the civilian institutions with some receiving extensions while others were deployed from their combat service– thus affecting the fighting capabilities and weakening the army.:37[135] Under Gen. Musharraf's leadership, the army's capabilities fighting the fanatic Talibans and Afghan Arab fighters in Pakistan further weakened and suffered serious setbacks in gaining control of the tribal belt that fell under the control of the Afghan Arabs and Uzbek fighters.:37[135] From 2006–09, the army fought the series of bloody battles with the fanatic Afghan Arabs and other foreign fighters including the army action in a Red Mosque in Islamabad to control the religious fanaticism.:37[135] With the controversial assassination of Baloch politician in 2006, the army had to engage in battles with the Baloch separatists fighting for the Balochistan's autonomy.:37[135]
In April 2007, the major reorganization of the commands of the army was taken place under Gen. Ahsan S. Hyatt, the vice army chief under Gen. Musharraf, establishing the Southern, Central, and the Northern Commands to "improve the operational efficiency and working of its land forces."[136][failed verification][137][failed verification][138][failed verification] With Gen. Musharraf's resignation and Gen. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani becoming the army chief, the army realigned itself to review its combat policies and withdrew officers in civilian institutions to focus on its primary constitutional mission to protect and responsible in 2009–14.:37[135][133] In 2012, there was a serious accident involving the entire battalion from the Northern Light Infantry when the avalanche struck the battalion base in Siachen, entrapping 135 soldiers and including several army officers.[139]
In 2013–16, the homegrown far-right guerrilla war with the Taliban, Afghan Arabs, and the Central Asian fighters took the decisive turn in favor of the army under Sharif administration, eventually gaining the control of the entire country and established the writ of the constitution in the affected lawless regions.[140] As of its current deployment as of 2019, the army remained engage in border fighting with the Indian Army while deploying its combat strike brigade teams in Saudi Arabia in a response of Saudi intervention in Yemen.[141]
UN peacekeeping missions[edit]
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In the wake of the new world power equilibrium, a more complex security environment has emerged. It is characterized by growing national power politics
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The table below shows the current deployment of Pakistani forces in UN Peacekeeping missions.
| Start of operation | Name of operation | Location | Conflict | Contribution | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1999 | United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) |  Democratic Republic of Congo | Second Congo War | 3,556 troops[142] | |
| 2003 | United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) |  Liberia | Second Liberian Civil War | 2,741 troops[142] | |
| 2004 | United Nations Operation in Burundi ONUB |  Burundi | Burundi Civil War | 1,185 troops[142] | |
| 2004 | United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI) |  Côte d'Ivoire | Civil war in Côte d'Ivoire | 1,145 troops[142] | |
| 2005 | United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS) |  Sudan | Second Sudanese Civil War | 1,542 Troops.[142] | |
| Staff/observers | 191 observers[142] |
- The total number of Pakistani troops serving in peacekeeping missions is 7,533, as of August 2015, which is one of the biggest number among rest of participants.[143]
Organization[edit]
Command and control structure[edit]
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Leadership in the army is provided by the Minister of Defense, usually leading and controlling the direction of the department of the army from the Army Secretariat-I at the Ministry of Defense, with the Defense Secretary who is responsible for the bureaucratic affairs of the army's department.[144] The Constitution allows the President of Pakistan, an elected civilian official, to act as the civilian Commander-in-Chief while the Prime Minister, an elected civilian, to act as the Chief Executive.[145] The Chief of Army Staff, an appointed four-star rank army general, is the highest general officer who acts as the principal military adviser on the expeditionary and land/ground warfare affairs, and a senior member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee– a military body that advises and briefs the elected civilian Prime Minister and its executive cabinet on national security affairs and operational military matters under the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.[3]
The single combat headquarter, the Army GHQ, is located in Rawalpindi Cantonment in Punjab in Pakistan, in the vicinity of the Joint Staff Headquarters.[3] The Chief of Army Staff controls and commands the army at all levels of operational command, and is assisted the number of Principal Staff Officers (PSOs) who are commissioned at the three-star rank generals.[3]
The military administration under the army chief operating at the Army GHQ including the appointed Principal Staff Officers:
- Chief of General Staff, under whom the Military Operations and Intelligence Directorates function.[3]
- Chief of Logistics Staff.[3]
- Quartermaster General (QMG).[3]
- Master General of Ordnance (MGO).[3]
- Engineer-in-Chief, the chief army engineer and topographer.[3]
- Judge Advocate General.[3]
- Military Secretary.[3]
- Comptroller of Civilian Personnel.[3]
- Note: See Chief of Army Staff for more command PSO-level appointments
In 2008, a major introduction was made in the military bureaucracy at the Army GHQ under Gene. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, when two new PSO positions were introduced: the Inspector-General of Arms and the Inspector-General Communications and IT.[146]
Personnel[edit]
Commissioned officers[edit]
The commissioned army ranks and insignia authorized in the Pakistan Army are modified and patterned on the British Army's officer ranks and insignia system.[147] There are several paths of becoming the commissioned officer in the army including the admission and required graduation from the Pakistan Military Academy in Kakul, Cadet Colleges or the Officer Candidate Schools (OCS i.e. Sui or Jhelum).:134[148] To become an officer in the army, the academic four-year college degree is required for the candidates to become officers in the army, and therefore they are designated by insignia unique to their staff community.:134[148]
Selection to the officer candidates is highly competitive with ~320–700 individuals are allowed to entered in the Pakistan Military Academy annually, with a small number of already graduated physicians, specialists, veterinaries and the engineers from the civilian universities are directly recruited in the administrative staff corps such as Medical Corps, Veterinary Corps, Engineering Corps, Dental Corps— and these graduated individuals are the heart of the administrative corps.:293[149] The product of a highly competitive selection process, members of the staff corps have completed twelve years of education in their respected fields (such as attending the schools and universities), and has to spend two years at the Pakistan Military Academy, with their time divided about equally between military training and academic work to bring them up to a baccalaureate education level, which includes English-language skills.:293[149] The Department of Army also offers employment to civilians in financial management, accountancy, engineering, construction, and administration, and has currently employed 6,500 civilians.[150]
The military officers in the Pakistani military seeks retirement between the ages of forty-two and sixty, depending on their ranks, and often seeks employment in the federal government or the private sector where the pay scales are higher as well as opportunity for gain considerably greater.:294[149]
Estimations by the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) the Pakistan Army's combined strength of the standing army is ~815,000 including the active duty personnels from the Regular Army, Army Reserve, Army National Guard, and is additionally supported by the ~70,000 personnel from the Frontier Corps–the military provost under the command of the Pakistan Army as of 2018.[108]
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Warrant officers[edit]
The Pakistan Army uniquely uses the junior commissioned officer (JCO) ranks, equivalent of the Warrant officers or the Limited duty officers in the United States military, inherited from the former British Indian Army introduced by the British Army in India between the enlisted and officer ranks.:134[148] The JCOs are single-track specialists with their subject of expertise in their particular part of the job and initially appointed (NS1) after risen from their enlisted ranks, receiving the promotion (SM3) from the commanding officer.:134[148]
The usage of the junior commissioned officer is the continuation of the former Viceroy's commissioned officer rank, and the JCO ranking system benefited the army since there was a large gap existed between the officers and the enlisted personnel at the time of the establishment of the new army in 1947.:134[148] Over the several years, the JCOs rank system has outlived its usefulness because of the educational level of the enlisted personnel has risen and army has more comfortably adopted the U.S. Army's ranking platform than the British.[43]:134[148] Promotion to the JCOs/WO ranks remains a powerful and influential incentive for those enlisted personnel desire not to attend the accredit four-year college.:134[148]
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Enlisted personnel[edit]
The recruiting and enlistment in the army is nationwide but the army's recruiting command maintains an ethnic balance, with those who turned away are encourage to join the either the Marines or the Air Force.:292[149] Most enlisted personnel had come from the poor and rural families with many had only rudimentary literacy skills in the past, but with the increase in the affordable education have risen to the matriculation level (12th Grade).:292[149] In the past, the army recruits had to re-educate the illiterate personnel while processing them gradually through a paternalistically run regimental training center, teaching the official language, Urdu, if necessary, and given a period of elementary education before their military training actually starts.:292[149]
In the thirty-six-week training period, they develop an attachment to the regiment they will remain with through much of their careers and begin to develop a sense of being a Pakistani rather than primarily a member of a tribe or a village.:292[149] Enlisted personnel usually serve for eighteen to twenty years, before retiring or gaining commission, during which they participate in regular military training cycles and have the opportunity to take academic courses to help them advance.:292[149]
The noncommissioned officers (or enlists) wear respective regimental color chevrons on the right sleeve.:292[149] Center point of the uppermost chevron must remain 10 cm from the point of the shoulder.:292[149] The Company/battalion appointments wear the appointments badges on the right wrist.:292[149] Pay scales and incentives are greater and attractive upon enlistment including the allocation of land, free housing, and financial aid to attend the colleges and universities.:294[149] Retirement age for the enlisted personnel varies and depends on the enlisted ranks that they have attained during their services.:294[149]
| Structure of enlisted ranks of the Pakistan Army | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pay grade | E-9 | E-8 | E-7 | E-6 | E-5 | E-4 | E-3 | E-2 | E-1 | ||||
| Insignia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | No insignia | No insignia | ||||
| Title | Battalion Havildar Major | Battalion Quartermaster Havildar | Company Havildar Major | Company Quartermaster Havildar | Havildar | Naik | Lance Naik | Sepoy | No Equivalent | ||||
| Abbreviation |
BHM
|
BQMH
|
CHM
|
CQMH
|
HAV
|
NK
|
L/Nk
|
Sep.
|
NE
| ||||
| NATO Code |
OR-9
|
OR-8
|
OR-7
|
OR-6
|
OR-5
|
OR-4
|
OR-3
|
OR-2
|
OR-1
| ||||
| U.S. Code | SGM | MSG | SFC | SSG | SGT | CPL | PFC | PVT | – | ||||
Recruitment and training[edit]
Prior to August 1947, the British Army's recruiting administration had recruited the enlists from the districts of the Jhelum, Rawalpindi, and Campbellpur that dominated the recruitment flows.[6] From 1947–71, the Pakistan Army was predominantly favored to recruit from Punjab and was popular in the country as the "Punjabi Army" because of heavy recruiting interests coming from the rural and poor families of villages in Punjab as well as being the most populous province of Pakistan.:149[152][153]
Even as of today, the Pakistan Army's recruiters struggle to enlist citizens and their selfless commitment to the military from the urban areas (i.e. Karachi and Peshawar) where the preference of the college education is quiet popular (especially attending post-graduate schools in the United States and the English-speaking countries) as well as working in the settled private industry for lucrative salaries and benefits, while the military enlistment still comes from the most rural and remote areas of Pakistan, where commitment to the military is much greater than in the metropolitan cities.:31[12]
After 1971, the Bhutto administration introduced the Quota system and drastically reduced the officers and enlists from Punjab and gave strong preference to residents in Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, and such policy continue to exists to maintain an ethnic balance in the army.:163[154] Those who are turned away are strongly encourage to join the Marines Corps or the Air Force.[6]
In 1991, the department of army drastically reduced the size of personnel from Punjab, downsizing the army personnel to 63%, and issues acceptable medical waivers interested enlists while encourage citizens of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Sindh.[155] This decision has given a fair chance to every citizen of Pakistan to be part of the Pakistan Army as each district possesses a fixed percentage of seats in all branches of the Army, as per census records.[155] By 2003–05, the department of army continued its policy by drastically downsizing the personnel from Punjab to 43–70%.[155][156]
The Department of Army has relaxes its recruitment and medical standards in Sindh and Balochistan where the height requirement of 5 feet 4 inches is considered acceptable even with the enlists educational level at eight grade is acceptable for the waiver; since the army recruiters takes responsibility of providing education to 12th grade to the interested enlists from Balochistan and Sindh.:31[12] In Punjab and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa where the recruitment is popular, the height requirement remains to be at 5 feet 6 inches with minimum education of 10th grade.:31[12]
The army has only one bootcamp that is located in Kakul at the Pakistan Military Academy where basic training takes place. Such training usually lasts for two years until the cadets are able to meet their graduation requirements from the Academy.[151] All the recruits, enlists, and officer candidates have to attend and be trained at the PMA regardless of attending the military schools and colleges in other parts of the country.[151]
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